apis genome assembly (Aapis-01Jun2006-scaffolds; Qin et al., 2006) and blastn (Altschul et al., 1997). Candidate loci were selected when a noncoding region of a size between 500 and 1000 bp was bracketed by two putative genes, as suggested by

the blastn search (Fig. 1). Primer pairs for five candidate loci (Table 2) were designed using Primer 3 (Rozen and Skaletsky, 2000). Specificity testing of the primers was conducted using a test panel of nine Ascosphaera species. Intraspecific sequence variation of the five scaffold loci was explored using 12 A. apis isolates, Palbociclib in vivo ten originating from infected honeybees collected throughout Denmark and two from North America (Table 1). In addition, selleck kinase inhibitor the ITS of the ribosomal RNA repeat including ITS1 and ITS2, and 5.8S rDNA (ITS) and a variable part of the gene encoding the translation elongation factor 1α (EF1α) were sequenced, and the degree of polymorphism in these sequences was determined using the 12 A. apis isolates. Sequences were edited and aligned manually using BioEdit (Hall, 1999). The sequence alignments were subsequently analyzed with mega version 4 (Tamura et al., 2007). The neighbor-joining method

(with all positions containing gaps eliminated) was used for the construction of phylogenetic trees. The genetic distances were calculated using the maximum composite likelihood method (Tamura et al., 2004). Branch supports were assessed by bootstrapping 1000 replicate data sets. First, each locus was analyzed separately to determine the number of haplotypes (equal to number branches) detected by each, and then a combined data set of all loci was used to determine the number of detectable haplotypes. Amplification of a single PCR product, followed by direct sequencing, was possible with the newly designed primers and the five intergenic loci for all 12 A. apis isolates. However, the primers did not work well on the

DNA from the other Ascosphaera species. Attempts to amplify our selected loci in nonapis species of Ascosphaera mostly resulted Isoconazole in multiple, faint bands or no product at all (Fig. 2). Direct sequencing of A. atra and A. major was only possible when the Scaffold 1635 primers were used, and no intraspecific differences in sequence were seen between the two A. atra isolates; furthermore, the sequences of A. atra and A. major could not be aligned with each other nor with A. apis at this locus. Intraspecific variation occurred among the 12 A. apis isolates at the five loci we tested. Differences occurred in the size of the amplified sequences, in substitution rates, and in the number of haplotypes that were identified (Table 2). Three of the loci, the one in Scaffold 1254 and the two in Scaffold 1608, had low substitution rates and only distinguished two haplotypes.