Better immune targeting may be achieved by influencing the type of adaptive immune response induced through an enhanced recruitment

and stimulation of APCs at the site of injection and in the regional lymph nodes. Different aluminium salts are contained in numerous licensed vaccines (Table 4.2). Aluminium salt adjuvants have complex, heterogeneous physical structures and the antigen is adsorbed to the adjuvant through hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions between antigen and the aluminium salt. Aluminium this website hydroxide is positively charged at a physiological pH of 7.4 and binds acidic proteins. Aluminium phosphate, on the other hand, is negatively charged and therefore binds basic proteins. Depending on the hydrophobic interactions

with the antigen, the appropriate aluminium salt is selected to maintain antigen immunogenicity and to obtain maximum adjuvant effect (Table 4.2). Glenny postulated that aluminium salts were effective adjuvants because they promote selleck antigen persistence and prolong release of the antigen. It has also been suggested that the antigens adsorbed on the aluminium salts are presented in a particulate multivalent form, making them more efficiently internalised by APCs. Recent studies have shown that this is not always the case. Most antigens are rapidly desorbed from aluminium salts following exposure to interstitial fluid, therefore adsorption is not always required to achieve adjuvanticity. However, adsorption or entrapment in aggregates might favour a high local antigen concentration and improved uptake by APCs. In addition, insoluble Non-specific serine/threonine protein kinase aluminium salts

have been shown to directly activate innate immune cells. It has been suggested that the effect of aluminium salts on cells may lead to the production of uric acid in vivo from the breakdown of purine nucleotides in apoptotic cells, which act as damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). DAMPs are generally substances released by stressed or dying cells and are recognised by cells of the innate immune system. Aluminium salts have recently been shown to activate in vitro components of the ‘inflammasome’ complex, but whether the activation of this pathway is required for the adjuvant effect of aluminium salts in vivo is uncertain. Nevertheless, new data also clearly show that aluminium salts have additional effects – beyond promoting persistence of antigen – that account for their adjuvant properties. As discussed previously, aluminium salts have been used successfully in vaccines against pathogens where antibodies provided the primary mechanism of protection. Aluminium salts exert little effect on Th1-type or cytotoxic T-cell responses, which are required for responses against intracellular pathogens. Hence, with vaccines for such pathogens, aluminium salt adjuvants have been found to be inadequate.