Mol Microbiol 1999, 32: 437–445.PubMedCrossRef Authors’ contributions see more JVB carried out the molecular genetic and growth studies and drafted the manuscript. HPG performed the statistical analysis, participated

in the coordination of the study and helped draft the manuscript. IS participated in the design of the study and helped draft the manuscript. FCC conceived of the study, participated in its design and coordination and helped draft the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Authors’ information JVB is currently at the Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, 1510 Clifton road, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA. HPG is currently at the Department of Pathology, Basic Science Building, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA. IS and FCC are currently at the Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Basic Science Building, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA.”
“Background Organisms that engage in an obligate mutualistic lifestyle often experience a drastic change in environmental conditions. Well known examples are symbiotic bacteria in the rumen of ungulates and the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, which selleckchem function under quite different growth conditions than free-living bacteria, and have genomes that became modified or reduced in response to these specialized

dependent life styles

[1, 2]. However, the expression of derived symbiotic traits is difficult to study in endosymbiotic bacteria, because they can normally not be grown on artificial media [3] or otherwise be studied separately from the host. This is easier in obligate ectosymbioses where hosts and symbionts can often survive and function without their partner-mutualist for at least a short period, and where relatively pure samples of symbiont biomass can often be obtained and analyzed. Attine ants live in obligate mutualistic association with specific fungi that they rear for food in underground gardens. The cultivated fungi mostly belong to the tribe Peptide 17 mw Leucocoprini (Basidiomycotina: Agaricales: Agaricaceae) [4, 5] which primarily consists of free-living saprotrophic genera that Olopatadine grow in the lower litter layer of forest floors, usually characterized by high pH levels [6] The ants supply their mutualistic fungi with substrate and protect their gardens from infections [5]. One of the defense mechanisms to control diseases is the secretion of the ant’s metapleural glands [7–10], which generates acidic conditions in fungus gardens, discouraging microbial growth relative to the surrounding soil with higher pH. Acetic acid is being produced in the fungus gardens, but this has to be tightly regulated as it has the potential to inflict more harm to the symbiont than to alien fungi [10].