thuringiensis toxin (Figure 4). Survival times of larvae treated with the highest concentrations of indomethacin and glutathione (100 μg and 12
μg, respectively) did not differ significantly from those treated with toxin alone. Figure 4 Effect of antioxidants and eicosanoid inhibitors on survival of third-instar gypsy moth larvae following ingestion of B. thuringiensis toxin (Bt; MVPII 10 μg). Various concentrations of three COX inhibitors (acetylsalicylic acid, indomethacin, and piroxicam) and the antioxidant glutathione were fed to larvae in combination with 10 μg of the MVPII formulation of B. thuringiensis Selleckchem ARRY-438162 toxin. Larvae were reared with enteric bacteria (no antibiotics) and all treatments were provided on artificial diet without antibiotics; gray shading indicates days on which larvae received treatments. Three independent cohorts of larvae (n = 12-16 each) were assayed. No mortality was observed when larvae were fed the compounds alone (Additional file 4). The effect of the compounds was assessed by comparing survival to B. thuringiensis toxin alone using the log-rank anlaysis of PROC LIFETEST (SAS 9.1, Additional file 4). Treatments with a survival distribution function statistically different from B. thuringiensis toxin alone (p < 0.05) are indicated by *. Discussion Four lines
of evidence indicate that the innate immune response is involved in B. thuringiensis-induced mortality of L. dispar. First, injections of B. thuringiensis and https://www.selleckchem.com/products/SB-202190.html Enterobacter sp. NAB3 into the insect
hemocoel were accompanied by melanization and MEK inhibitor hemocyte aggregation, both of which are indicators of an activated innate immune response. Second, as demonstrated here and reported by Ericsson et al. [42], depletion of hemocytes, the key actors of the cellular immune response of insects, was observed following B. thuringiensis ingestion in the absence of bacteremia. Third, fragments of peptidoglycan, an inducer of innate immunity, substituted for Enterobacter in accelerating killing of antibiotic-treated larvae with B. thuringiensis. Fourth, antioxidants and compounds that inhibit eicosanoid biosynthesis, and thereby suppress the innate immune response, delayed B. thuringiensis-induced mortality. Based on these results, we propose the Ribonucleotide reductase hypothesis that B. thuringiensis incites an overblown innate immune response, in cooperation with other factors, which in turn contributes to host death. This immune induction either requires the normal gut microbiota or is directly suppressed by antibiotic treatment, and is restored to antibiotic-treated larvae by addition of bacteria or immunostimulatory cell fragments. This model is derived, in part, from the mechanism of mammalian sepsis in which gut-derived microbiota serve as both sources of infectious bacteria and modulators of the innate immune system [51–54].