, 2009 and Lu et al., 2011). The present analysis is not sufficient to distinguish which cell fraction in the BMDMC sample gave rise to the therapeutic effects observed. Determination of which specific cell types are responsible for these features will require future experiments, such as transplant studies using cell sorters, a comparative study of bone marrow cell populations and in vitro functional bioassays of BMDMCs. Although intravenous administration of BMDMCs has been effective as a pre-treatment protocol for asthma, reducing inflammation and remodelling and yielding

better lung function (Abreu et al., 2011a), we investigated whether intratracheal instillation of BMDMCs, a more selleck direct route to the lungs, would be more effective, delivering a higher number of cells (Bonios et al., 2011). This would translate in clinical practice into bronchoscopic delivery of these cells, a procedure

that can be performed safely in asthmatic patients following allergen challenge (Elston et al., 2004 and Busse et al., 2005). In order to identify homing of bone marrow cells in lung parenchyma, GFP-positive cells derived from male mice (a reliable marker of engrafted cells) were quantified. GFP-positive cells were observed in the OVA-CELL groups, click here but not in C-CELL lungs, suggesting that tissue damage is necessary to attract and retain these cells even when they are intratracheally administered. As stated elsewhere, the inflammatory process plays an essential role in cell recruitment to the injured area (Herzog et al., 2006). Nevertheless, the source of signals responsible for mobilization and homing of endogenous and exogenous stem cells remains unclear. Stem

cell recruitment varies according to the degree (Herzog et al., 2006) and type of tissue damage (Abe et al., 2004). Lung accumulation FER of intravenously injected stem cells is proportional to the presence of adhesion molecules on the cell surface and to the size of the cell. Most cells in the bone marrow fraction do not express major adhesion molecules, such as vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), when binding to pulmonary vascular endothelium. BMDMCs are also smaller compared to other cell types, such as MSCs (Fischer et al., 2009). Therefore, BMDMCs pass easily through the pulmonary capillaries and into the systemic circulation when injected intravenously, reaching distal organs rather than remaining in the lung tissue (Lassance et al., 2009). We expected that intratracheal instillation would promote a more marked pulmonary engraftment than that actually observed in the present study.

Between about 3500 and 2000 BP the Korean population grew apace, and thriving communities of the Songgukri type hived off daughter villages and their surrounding fields into less densely populated lands farther and farther south until the new way of life spread all the way selleck chemicals llc down the Korean Peninsula and across the narrow Tsushima Strait into Japan (Rhee et al., 2007). The Middle Mumun culture complex that appeared in northern Kyushu and quickly spread northward is called Yayoi by Japanese archeologists but there is no

mistaking its Korean origins, and the cemeteries of Yayoi settlements in Kyushu and southern Honshu demonstrate distinctive skeletal differences between the new immigrants and the Jomon Japanese they intermarried with. A thoroughgoing amalgamation of originally separate Korean and Japanese peoples and cultures followed as Korean emigrants flowed into Japan over centuries, intermarrying with the Jomon Japanese and giving rise to a new hybrid Japanese population and culture

that grew and spread throughout the Japanese archipelago. The archeological site of Yoshinogari in Northern Kyushu, now a Japanese national park, offers a splendid recreation of the newly imported Mumun/Yayoi cultural pattern in Japan (Saga Prefecture Board of Education, 1990). The new continental wave had a lasting impact on Japan, but there was much continuity as well. Korean agriculture and metallurgy were new, but more ancient Japanese practices selleck products and values persisted. The genetic heritage of Jomon times remains forever part of the now-hybrid Japanese population (Hanihara, 1991, Hudson, 1999 and Omoto and Saitou, 1997), and various Jomon cultural and economic forms persisted for generations in the Tokyo region and beyond in northern Honshu and Hokkaido. Indeed, throughout the archipelago the ancient fishing and shell-fishing traditions of aboriginal Jomon Japan will always remain economically essential (Aikens, 1981, Aikens, selleck chemical 1992, Aikens, 2012,

Aikens and Higuchi, 1982, Aikens and Rhee, 1992, Akazawa, 1982, Akazawa, 1986, Hanihara, 1991, Omoto and Saitou, 1997 and Rhee et al., 2007). The Korea–Japan connection has been long lasting, with commerce and cultural exchange maintained continuously between peninsula and archipelago ever since these early days, as detailed by Rhee et al. (2007). State-level societies built on the new economic base soon appeared, and the Mumun-Yayoi cultural horizon was followed in both Korea and Japan by increasingly complex tomb cultures that led in Korea to the Goguryeo, Baekje, Silla, and Gaya States during the Three Kingdoms period (∼AD 300–668), and in Japan to a long Kofun Period (AD 250–538) of competing warlords, out of which came the founding of the first Yamato state at about AD 650.