866). The results obtained in this study indicate that there are interesting correlations between chemical composition and physical characteristics of barley cultivars and could be used to predict the physicochemical properties of barley based food products.”
“Study Design.

Three case reports of patients with treatment of severe cervical hyperextension.

Objective. Cervical hyperextension is a rare spine deformity that is associated with myopathies. Previous reports of surgical correction have reported no major operative complications. This report outlines our experience with 3 patients who experienced significant complications.

Summary of Background Data. The limited literature selleck on the treatment of cervical hyperextension has good to excellent outcomes.

Methods. Three case reports are presented.

Results. Three cases with severe cervical hyperextension with intraoperative correction had associated morbidity and mortality. One case had a failed intubation requiring tracheotomy. This was followed by a successful posterior release with halo traction for 2 weeks and then an instrumented posterior cervical fusion. This patient died at home 2 weeks after surgery. The second and third cases had an intraoperative spinal cord injury during a posterior release for cervical hyperextension.

Conclusion. Patients

with severe cervical hyperextension have high neurologic perioperative Roscovitine in vivo risk.”
“IBD is a chronic and relapsing inflammatory disorder of the gut

that demands long-lasting treatment targeting both flare-up periods and maintenance of remission. Oral systemic steroids have been used to induce remission in patients with active IBD for over 50 years due to their potent anti-inflammatory effects. The efficacy of systemic steroids in this setting has been largely demonstrated. However, the wide range of adverse events associated with these drugs has prompted the development of equally effective but less toxic steroid compounds. Currently, topically acting oral steroids are an important therapeutic option for Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis and microscopic colitis, being oral GDC-0449 ic50 budesonide and oral beclomethasone established elements of the IBD armamentarium. At present, oral budesonide is the first-line therapy to induce remission in microscopic colitis and mild to moderate ileocaecal CD patients and oral beclomethasone is effective treating mild to moderate UC patients with left-sided or extensive disease. This review aims at evaluating the current role of these compounds in IBD clinical practice. (C) 2012 European Crohn’s and Colitis Organisation. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.”
“Microencapsulation of canthaxanthin produced by Dietzia natronolimnaea HS-1 using soluble soybean polysaccharide (SSPS) as a wall material by spray drying method was studied. The SSPS showed very good ability for microencapsulation of canthaxanthin due to its emulsifying properties.

Our group has shown that in rats, mice and nonhuman primates, selleck compound bone marrow progenitors cultured with low doses of granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor can generate Tol-DCs. Injection of autologous Tol-DCs (the same

strain as the recipient) is able to significantly prolong allograft survival. Autologous Tol-DCs are more effective than allogeneic Tol-DCs in prolonging allograft survival. Although the reason of this difference remains unclear, it indicates the practical advantages of autologous Tol-DCs as a therapeutic tool in a clinical setting. When autologous Tol-DCs (not pulsed with donor antigens) are administered along with suboptimal immunosuppression treatment, a synergistic effect is achieved,

resulting in donor-specific allograft tolerance.

Summary

Autologous Tol-DC therapy is a promising approach to improve long-term allograft survival. This strategy may also help reduce the immunosuppressive load in grafted patients and, therefore, limit the harmful IPI-549 manufacturer effects of immunosuppressive agents.”
“Objective: To investigate prepregnancy cardiovascular function and risk factors in women with previous pregnancy complications. Methods: Thirty-four women with previous normal pregnancy (controls), 26 with unexplained recurrent miscarriage (RM) and 14 with pre-eclampsia (PE) and/or intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), planning to conceive were recruited. Brachial and central blood pressures (BP), cardiac output (CO), peripheral vascular

resistance (PVR), aortic stiffness, blood biochemistry and platelet aggregation were assessed. Results: Women with previous PE/IUGR had higher brachial diastolic BP (78 +/- 9 vs 71 +/- 7 mmHg; p = 0.03), central systolic BP (107 +/- 10 vs 99 +/- 8 mmHg; p = 0.03), mean MK-2206 cell line arterial pressure (92 +/- 10 vs 84 +/- 8 mmHg; p = 0.01) and PVR (1499 +/- 300 vs 1250 +/- 220 dynes.s(-1) cm(-5); p = 0.005), than the controls. No differences were observed in either cardiovascular function or blood biochemistry in women with unexplained RM compared with the controls. Women with previous PE/IUGR though not with RM had a stronger family history of cardiovascular disease (CVD) than controls. Conclusions: Women with previous PE and/or IUGR had higher BP and PVR compared with controls, which may predispose them to CVD later in life. However, in the absence of underlying vascular pathology, women with unexplained RM did not have abnormal cardiovascular function. Prepregnancy period provides an opportunity to identify cardiovascular risks in relation to previous obstetric history.”
“Purpose of review

Recent advances in phenotypic identification of CD8 T cells with regulatory properties has allowed better definition of this subset of CD8 Tregs (also called CD8 T suppressor cells in the past). Analysis of their potential contribution in transplantation has attracted most of the interest in the past few years.

Electron microscopy showed epithelial cells in untreated areas with an absence of the LECs and debris in treated areas.

CONCLUSIONS: The laser photolysis buy Nec-1s system removed LECs from the anterior lens capsule and capsule fornix. Along with the cells, laminin, fibronectin, and cell debris remained

in the untreated areas but were removed by the treatment. This treatment may be useful in preventing posterior capsule opacification.”
“The critical events in clearance or persistence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection are unknown but likely to be determined early in acute infection. Type 1 and type 2 cytokine production was assessed by HCV peptide ELISpot and multiplex in vitro cytokine production assays in longitudinally collected samples from 20 untreated participants enrolled in the Australian Trial in Acute Hepatitis C (ATAHC); a prospective cohort of acute HCV infection (77% injecting drug users, IDU). Significantly higher interleukin-10 (IL-10) production (P = 0.048), in the relative absence of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and IL-2 production, was present early in HCV infection in those who progressed to chronic infection. In contrast, viral clearance was associated with a greater magnitude and broader specificity of IFN-gamma (magnitude P < 0.001, breadth P = 0.004) and IL-2 responses, in the relative absence of IL-10. Early IL-10 production was correlated with higher

HCV RNA level at baseline (P = 0.046) and week 12 (P = 0.018), while IFN-gamma and IL-2 production was inversely correlated with HCV RNA level at baseline (IFN-gamma P = 0.020, IL-2 P = 0.050) and week 48 (IFN-gamma P = 0.045, selleck kinase inhibitor IL-2 P = 0.026). Intracellular staining

(ICS) indicated the HCV-specific IFN-gamma response was primarily from CD8(+) MLN4924 ic50 T cells and NK cells, whereas IL-10 production was predominantly from monocytes, with a subset of IL-10 producing CD8(+) T cells present only in those who progressed to chronic infection. IL-10, an immunoregulatory cytokine, appears to play a key role in progression to chronic HCV infection.”
“We discuss the observation of a transient (000)-order attenuation in time-resolved transmission electron diffraction experiments. It is shown that this effect causes a decrease of the diffraction intensity of all higher diffraction orders. This effect is not unique to specific materials as it was observed in thin Au, Ag and Cu films. (C) 2011 American Institute of Physics. [doi:10.1063/1.3554405]“
“PURPOSE: To compare aqueous outflow and India ink inflow to evaluate clear corneal incisions (CCIs).

SETTING: Wilmer Eye Institute, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.

METHODS: Two 25-gauge needles connected to a salt solution bag and to a digital manometer were inserted through the limbus of human donor corneas 120 degrees apart from each other. Three 2.75 mm wide incisions were created in a different third of each cornea as follows: single-plane 1.50 mm tunnel length, single-plane 3.00 mm tunnel length, and 2-step 3.00 mm tunnel length.

(C) 2010 The Royal College of Radiologists. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Cryopreservation

of mesenchymal EPZ5676 order stem cells from amniotic fluid is of clinical importance, as these cells can be harvested during the prenatal period and stored for use in treatments. We examined the behavior of mesenchymal stem cells from human amniotic fluid in culture that had been subjected to cryopreservation. We assessed chromosomal stability through karyotype analysis, determined whether multipotent capacity (differentiation into adipogenic, chondrogenic, and osteogenic cells) is maintained, and analyzed SOX2 and NANOG expression after thawing. Five amniotic fluid samples were cryopreserved for 150 days. No chromosomal aberrations were observed. The expression levels of NANOG and SOX2 also were quite similar before and after cryopreservation. Capacity for differentiation

into adipogenic, chondrogenic, and osteogenic tissues also remained the same. We conclude that cryopreservation LGX818 mouse of amniotic fluid does not alter karyotype, NANOG/SOX2 gene expression, or multipotent capacity of stem cells that have been collected from amniotic fluid during pregnancy.”
“Almost two thirds of plantain world production is processed by means of deep frying which place it in the same occurrence as potatoes-based food in some tropical regions (Latin America, Central Africa and Southeast Asia). Asparagine content and effect of water activity on acrylamide kinetic in a plantain matrix was surprisingly investigated for the first time. Asparagine content was analyzed in ten edible Musa L., and “”Cooking bananas”" were found (maximum of 70 mg/100 g db) to be less concentrated find more than “”dessert bananas”" (maximum of 321 mg/100 g db). Moreover, asparagine content decreased by 75% after 11 days of post-harvest ripening. Acrylamide formation/elimination kinetics were determined in plantain paste

at three different initial water activity values (0.972, 0.904, and 0.430) measured at 25 degrees C and heated at high temperatures (140-200 degrees C) in a closed reactor. Acrylamide in plantain was formed at the same magnitude as for potatoes, rye and wheat-based products (max similar to 0.9 ppm, wb). Kinetic parameter estimation was performed using a single response modeling. The reaction kinetic and the estimated kinetic parameters revealed an increase in acrylamide formation and elimination reaction rates with decreasing water activity. The corresponding activation energies of the rate constants remained unaffected. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“End-stage head and neck cancer is a difficult disease to manage. The only curative treatment option remains surgery, but this is frequently not feasible.

These results emphasize the concept that the toxicity of xenobiotics may be affected by possible interactions, which may be of significance given the common coexposures to multiple contaminants. (c) 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 29: 418-427, 2014.”
“Carrier mobilities Tipifarnib mw in ambipolar field-effect transistors (FETs) are studied using a rubrene single crystal assembled with Au/Ca electrodes and SiO(2) gate insulators modified by polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), parylene-C, and hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS). The experimental results are interpreted in terms of the two interfacial efficiency parameters,

the injection, and the transport efficiencies. The efficiency of electron carrier injection can be evaluated using Au-Au and Au-Ca electrodes. The efficiency of electron carrier transport was compared among the device with PMMA, parylene-C, and HMDS modification layer. The shallow trap density at the semiconductor-gate dielectric interface is shown not to be the most important factor for controlling FET mobilities. Instead, the surface polarization associated with the surface molecular structure is proposed to be another possible parameter. Furthermore, the shift of light emitting with applied gate voltage was observed in a device Y-27632 manufacturer with PMMA modified insulator and Au-Ca

asymmetric metals. (C) 2009 American Institute of Physics. [DOI: 10.1063/1.3153946]“
“Two Kunitz trypsin inhibitors TPI-1 and TPI-2, encoded by CaTPI-1 and CaTPI-2, previously identified and characterized, Bromosporine order have been detected in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) embryonic axes from seeds imbibed up to 48 h. Their

gene transcription commenced before germination sensu stricto was completed. The transcript amount of CaTPI-1 remained high until 24 h after imbibition, when the epicotyls started to grow, while CaTPI-2 mRNA, which appeared later, reached a maximum at 48 h. Both the temporal and the spatial distribution of TPI-1 and TPI-2 proteins in the embryonic axes suggest that they perform different functions. The early appearance of TPI-1 in imbibed seeds suggests that it plays a protective role, preventing the premature degradation of the proteins stored in the embryonic axes. Its pattern of distribution suggests that the protein is involved in the regulation of vascular tissue differentiation, protecting the cells from some proteinases involved in programmed cell death. With regard to TPI-2, its later synthesis after imbibition, together with its tissue distribution, indicates that it is mainly active following germination, during elongation of the embryonic axes. (C) 2008 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.”
“MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs that act as regulators of gene expression by targeting mature messenger RNAs. Following the initial report of the presence of miRNAs in serum and plasma a number of studies have successfully demonstrated the use of these miRNAs as biomarkers of disease.

Treatment was variously with non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), prednisolone, and DMARDs. Rheumatoid arthritis is not uncommon among Nigerian; and clinical, serologic acumen are necessary for early diagnosis and appropriate referral.”
“Several models MK-1775 Cell Cycle inhibitor exist for calculating superconducting repulsion forces in the Meissner state that are based on the method of images. The method of images, however, is limited to a small number of geometrical configurations that can be solved exactly, and the physical interpretation of the method is under discussion. A general local model based on the London equations and Maxwell’s equations

has been developed to describe the mechanics of the superconductor-permanent magnet system. Due to its differential form, this expression can be easily implemented in a finite elements analysis and, consequently, is easily applicable to any shape of superconductor in the Meissner state. It can solve both forces and torques. This paper reports different

experiments undertaken in order to test the model’s validity. The vertical forces and the angle of equilibrium between a magnet and a superconductor were measured, and a positive agreement between the experiments and theoretical calculations was found. (C) 2011 American Institute of Physics. [doi:10.1063/1.3553581]“
“There has been growing evidence that the Purkinje network plays a pivotal role in both the initiation and perpetuation of ventricular fibrillation (VF). A triggering Nepicastat in vivo selleck chemicals llc ventricular premature beat (VPB) with a short-coupling interval could arise from either the right or left Purkinje system in patients with polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (VT) or VF, and that can be suppressed by the catheter ablation of the trigger. A focal breakdown in the “”gating mechanism”" at the Purkinje system resulting in a short-circuiting of the transmission across the gate at the distal Purkinje network might predispose to reentrant circuits of polymorphic VT/VF. Many investigators also reported the successful ablation of Purkinje-related VF with an acute

or remote myocardial infarction. The same approach with good short-term results has been reported in a small number of patients with other heart diseases (i.e., amyloidosis, chronic myocarditis, nonischemic cardiomyopathy). Catheter ablation of the triggering VPBs from the Purkinje system can be used as an electrical bailout therapy in patients with VF storm. (PACE 2011;34:1034-1049)”
“The objective is to study the annual incidence and standardized incidence ratio (SIR) of venous thromboembolism (VTE) in a cohort of Chinese patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). VTE events of SLE patients occurring between 1999 and 2008 were identified from our database, and the annual incidence of VTE was calculated according to the cohort size. SIRs were estimated by the ratios of the incidence of VTE in SLE to the general population. In 2008, 516 SLE patients were in our cohort.

Conclusions: Although ecologic data such as this have limitations, the significant differential effects observed by

time period and age group are suggestive of a vaccine effect of similar magnitude to that documented by postmarketing surveillance in the United States. The rapid uptake of 7vPCV in Australia, including catch up to 2 years of age, is an important difference to the United States and it is possible that an even greater effect would have been observed with a booster dose in the second year of life. Longer term data will be needed to fully assess the role of a booster dose.”
“To assess the measurement properties of the COPD assessment test (CAT) in a randomized trial comparing a face-to-face interview (FFI) with JAK inhibitor a telephone interview (TI).

A randomized study was conducted at two teaching hospitals in Fortaleza, Brazil. Patients were randomly assigned to answer the CAT questionnaire either in a FFI or by TI. The two groups were assessed for internal consistency reliability, cross-sectional validity and test-retest reliability. All patients performed spirometry and answered the modified medical research council dyspnea scale and the St. George’s respiratory questionnaire (SGRQ).

The total scores of the CAT questionnaire were similar for face-to-face selleck chemicals llc and TI groups, 20.71 (95 % CI 18-23.4) versus 20.81 (95 % CI 19.31-21.7),

respectively. For both mode of administration, we found good internal consistency reliability, selleck chemical the Cronbach’s alpha ranged from 0.74 (95 % CI 0.61-0.84) to 0.89 (95 % CI 0.84-0.93) for the TI and FFI, respectively. In general, moderate-to-high correlations of CAT with SGRQ were observed, independent of the administration format. For the test-retest reliability, the intraclass correlation coefficients were very similar for both FFI and TI group 0.96 (95 % CI 0.93-0.97) versus 0.98 (95 % CI 0.96-0.98), respectively.

This study demonstrated that

the CAT questionnaire administration either in a FFI or by TI presents moderate-to-high measurement properties. This provides support for the use of both modes of questionnaire administration.”
“To assess the non-LDL-C-related dyslipidaemia risk of MI, 823 men aged 23 to 65 with a first MI were compared with 823 MI-free PROCAM controls matched for sex, age, smoking, DM, BP and LDL-C. Overall, the odds of MI in men with HDL-C < 1.15 mmol/L were 2.6 times those of men with HDL-C >= 1.15 mmol/L, and the odds of MI in men with triglycerides >= 1.71 mmol/L were 1.4 times those of men with lower triglycerides. If LDL-C was < 2.58 mmol/L, relative MI odds attributed to HDL-C < 1.15 mmol/L increased to 3.4, while relative odds attributed to triglycerides >= 1.71 mmol/L increased to 2.6; men in this LDL category with HDL-C < 1.15 mmol/L and/or triglycerides >= 1.71 mmol/L displayed an MI odds ratio of 5.0. MI risk associated with low HDL-C and/or high triglycerides is substantial, particularly if LDL-C is low.

“
“Methods: The computational model for each of the five operating learn more modes offered by the generator is compared to independent tissue temperature measurements taken during in vitro ablation experiments performed on bovine myocardium.

Results: The results of the model agree with experimental temperature measurements very closely-the average values for mean error,

root mean square difference, and correlation coefficient were 1.9 degrees C, 13.3%, and 0.97, respectively. Lesions are shown to be contiguous and no significant edge effects are observed.

Conclusions: Both the in vitro and computational model results demonstrate that lesion depth decreases consistently SP600125 supplier as the bipolar-to-unipolar ratio increases-suggesting a clinical application to potentially control lesion depth with higher fidelity than is currently available. The effect of variable design parameters and clinical conditions on RF ablation can now be expeditiously studied with this validated model. (PACE 2010; 33:1089-1100).”
“Time

trade-off (TTO) exercises typically present respondents with a limited time horizon, for example 10 years, thus implicitly considerably reducing remaining life expectancy for the average respondent. It is unclear how this affects health state valuations.

The aim of the study is to investigate Selleckchem CP690550 how awareness of the reduced life span implied by a 10-year TTO affects health state valuations, using an experimental design.

Two Web-based questionnaires (Q1 and Q2) were administered in a sample representative of the Dutch population. Both questionnaires contained three 10-year TTO exercises valuing three distinct health states,

specified using the EQ-5D. Q1 used a TTO instruction not explicitly emphasizing the fact that remaining life expectancy was reduced to 10 years, while in Q2 respondents were explicitly made aware of this fact by emphasizing their implied age of death. Respondents answering Q1 were asked retrospectively whether they had been aware of their reduced life span due to the 10-year TTO.

In total, 656 respondents completed the questionnaires (Q1: 339 and Q2: 317). The average age of the respondents was 43 years and 51 % of respondents were male. The average numbers of years traded off for the respondents of Q1 were for TTO1 0.443, TTO2 0.552, and TTO3 2.083 years. For the respondents of Q2, these averages were lower, i.e., TTO1 0.401 (p = 0.085 vs. Q1), TTO2: 0.546 (p = 0.036 vs. Q1), and TTO3: 1.467 years (p = 0.000 vs. Q1). Fifty-seven percent of respondents in Q1 confirmed that they were aware of the reduced life span. This spontaneous awareness had a limited and mixed influence on results.

1 years; age range, 18-87 years) provided HSP inhibitor written informed consent. Radiographs of the cervical spine, lumbar spine, pelvis, and hips were scored by using the Bath Ankylosing Spondylitis Radiology Index (BASRI) by an experienced radiologist. Differences in sacroiliitis grade between right and left sacroiliac joints, frequency of cervical-and lumbar-predominant involvement by sex, frequency of progression to complete

spinal fusion, and association between hip arthritis and spinal involvement were computed for the cohort overall and for subgroups defined according to duration of AS in 10-year increments.

Results: Symmetric sacroiliitis was seen in 86.1% of patients. Lumbar Selleckchem ITF2357 predominance was more common during the first 20 years of the disease, after which the cervical spine and lumbar spine were equally involved.

Men and women were equally likely to have cervical-predominant involvement. Complete spinal fusion was observed in 27.9% of patients with AS for more than 30 years and in 42.6% of patients with AS for more than 40 years. Patients with BASRI hip scores of 2 or greater had significantly higher BASRI spine scores.

Conclusion: There were no sex differences in cervical-predominant involvement in AS. Hip arthritis was strongly associated with worse spinal involvement. (C) RSNA, 2010″
“Definitively establishing a clinical diagnosis of chronic Q fever remains challenging, as the diagnostic performance of both conventional serological tests and PCR is limited. Given the importance of an early diagnosis of chronic Q fever, there is a need for a reliable diagnostic test. We developed an enzyme-linked immunospot assay to measure Coxiella burnetii (C. burnetii)-specific T-cell MK-0518 responses (Coxiella ELISPOT) to both phase I and phase II antigens

and tested convalescent Q fever patients (without chronic disease, n = 9) and patients with an established diagnosis of chronic Q fever (n = 3). The Coxiella ELISPOT adequately identified convalescent Q fever patients from healthy controls by demonstrating C. burnetii-specific T-cell interferon-? production to both phase I and phase II antigens. Compared to convalescent Q fever patients, chronic Q fever patients showed a distinct Coxiella ELISPOT profile characterized by a much higher spot count for both phase I and phase II (18-fold for phase II, 8-fold higher for phase I) and a consistent shift towards more phase I reactivity. The diagnostic potential of the Coxiella ELISPOT is promising and warrants further investigation.”
“We updated the evidence-based recommendations for the diagnosis, assessment, prevention, and treatment of hypertension in adults for 2011.

In mice, permanent MCAO resulted in a selective cortical infarct. No changes in SUMOylation occurred at 6 h but there was increased SUMO-1 conjugation in the cortical infarct and non-ischemic hippocampus at 24 h after MCAO. Interestingly, SUMOylation by SUMO-2/3 occurred only outside the infarct area. In both rat and mouse levels of KARs were only

decreased in the infarct regions whereas AMPARs Selleck Lapatinib were decreased in the infarct and in other brain areas. These results suggest that posttranslational modification by SUMO and down-regulation of AMPARs and KARs may play important roles in the pathophysiological response to ischemia. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“The (-938C > A) polymorphism in the promoter region of the BCL-2 gene was recently associated with inferior time to treatment and overall survival in B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) patients displaying the-938A/A genotype and may thus serve as an unfavorable genetic marker in CLL. Furthermore, the-938A/A genotype was associated with increased expression of Bcl-2. To click here investigate this further, we analyzed the-938 genotypes of the BCL-2 gene in 268 CLL patients and correlated data with treatment status, overall survival and known prognostic factors, for example, Binet stage, immunoglobulin heavy-chain

variable (IGHV) mutational status and CD38 expression. In contrast to the recent report, the current cohort because of CLL patients showed no differences either in time to treatment or overall survival in relation to usage of a particular genotype. In addition, no correlation was evident between the (-938C > A) genotypes and IGHV mutational status, Binet stage or CD38. Furthermore, the polymorphism did not appear to affect the Bcl-2 expression at the RNA level. Taken together, our data do not support the use of the (-938C > A) BCL-2 polymorphism as a prognostic marker in CLL and argue against its postulated role in modulating Bcl-2 levels.”
“Granule cells of the dentate gyrus in the hippocampus generally fire at low frequencies but are known to respond to sensory cues by increasing their rate

of firing. We have previously shown that a burst of action potentials in synaptically isolated granule cells can induce a long-term depolarisation (LTDepol) of the neuronal membrane potential. This form of excitability plasticity could be an important mechanism for learning and memory. Here we demonstrate that this depolarisation can be reversed by physiologically relevant firing patterns. At a basal action potential frequency of 0.1 Hz the membrane potential depolarises in response to brief high frequency stimulation (HFS) but this depolarisation is blocked or reversed by 1 Hz action potential firing. The depolarisation of the neurones did not, however, affect the input-output function of the dentate gyrus measured by field or single cell recordings.