1). Effort was not evenly distributed throughout the areas (% of total effort: A = 3.5%, B = 10.2%, C = 31.8%, D = 51.4%, E&F = 3.1%, Elliser and Herzing 2012) due to physical attributes of the environment as well as rough weather that prohibited boat movement. This type of varied effort is typical in other social analysis studies in similarly sized study areas (Shane 2004, Lusseau et al. 2006, Kent et al. 2008). Atlantic

spotted SB203580 dolphins show the four developmental color phases described by Perrin (1970) for the pantropical spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata) and adapted for Atlantic spotted dolphin by Herzing (1997). The four age classes include: two-tone (calves, ≤4 yr), speckled (juveniles, 4–9 yr), mottled (young adult, 10–16 yr) and fused (adult, ≥16 yr). This community is comprised of about 100 individuals in any given year, although over 330 have been identified over the past 28 yr total. All individuals have been identified in this community

Selleckchem PS-341 using their spotting patterns and coloration phases. Every identified individual is assigned to an age class and these data are updated each year. Individual identification was accomplished by comparing spotting patterns between individuals. Additional body marks were also used, including nicks and scars on the dorsal fin, flukes, and pectoral fins as well as marks or scars on the body. Females were sexed by observation of mammary slits or observation of nursing by a calf. Males were sexed by a gap between the genital slit and the anus, or observation of an erection. Sex was determined for 98.5% of the community and verified multiple times for all individuals seen more than once. These dolphins are habituated to the presence of boats and people in the water. Data for this study were collected from May to September each year between 1991 and 2002. Opportunistic observations were made in every other month (October–April) over the years and known individuals were resighted in these months, indicating

year round residency. Observations were conducted in all but rough weather conditions (over Beaufort 3 and/or intense rain Succinyl-CoA squalls) from 0700 to 2000 in shifts of one person/one hour, or two person/two hours. Observers scanned an arc of 180º while underway and 360º while anchored. A group was defined as all dolphins in sight, moving in the same direction and typically involved in the same activity (Shane 1990). Upon sighting, group size was determined from the surface. Individuals were considered associated when identified with the group. Two to five researchers then entered the water with underwater video and Nikon V 35 mm cameras to begin an encounter to document dolphin behavior and vocalizations. Encounters were only included for analysis if the group of dolphins were observable underwater for more than 2–3 min.

The type family Sphaeropleaceae differs from many other sphaeroplealeans in ITS2 secondary structure (Keller et al. 2008), although most lineages discussed in the present study have not been tested in that way. It is possible that Sphaeropleaceae are sister to the remaining (“crown”) Sphaeropleales as suggested by previous studies Doxorubicin (e.g., Wolf et al. 2002, Tippery et al. 2012). The order Sphaeropleales is characterized by a putatively strong ultrastructural synapomorphy, the directly opposed (DO) basal flagellar bodies in motile cells, and even though swimming

cells of the Sphaeropleaceae differ ultrastructurally from the remainder of the order, they retain the basic DO organization. The Sphaeropleaceae contain the filamentous Sphaeroplea, and the solitary Ankyra and Atractomorpha. These algae are coenocytic, contain pyrenoids with traversing cytoplasm, and reproduce via zoospores or sexually via anisogamy or oogamy. Motile cells have been described in detail by Hoffman (1984) and Cáceres et al. (1997). In addition, Tsarenko (2005) lists four families

as members of the Sphaeropleales that were not included in our study: Characiaceae, Chlorosarcinaceae, Gloeotilaceae, and Microsporaceae. Characiaceae, as discussed above, is a problematic taxon because the higher taxonomic affiliation of the lectotype species (Characium sieboldii A. Braun) remains unclear. Nevertheless, the classification proposed in this study PF2341066 is not affected by this uncertainty. The family Chlorosarcinaceae was not considered

in this study because it had been demonstrated by Deason and Floyd (1987) that Chlorosarcina ROS1 has a counter-clockwise arrangement of flagellar basal bodies, which rules it out as a member of Chlorophyceae. Similarly, even though the type of the genus has not been verified phylogenetically, Gloeotila was shown to group with trebouxiophytes in Verghese (2007). Likewise, no type material of Microspora is available for phylogenetic examination, and therefore the family was not considered in the present study. Interestingly, unpublished data by Buchheim and Buchheim (http://www.bio.utulsa.edu/deepestgreen/Geminella.htm) weakly suggest that one Microspora-like strain (UTEX LB472) may be a relative of Sphaeropleales. However, Durako (2007) showed the same strain as a relative of Chaetophorales. The phylogenetic position of Microsporaceae will require further investigation, and likely additional field collections to designate a type specimen/culture for the generitype of Microspora, M. abbreviata (Rabenhorst) Lagerheim. Rotundella rotunda gen. et sp. nov. Fučíková, P. O. Lewis & L. A. Lewis (Fig. 1, a–f) Cells spherical to ovoid or irregular (5–) 8–20 μm in diameter. In young cells, chloroplast single, cup-shaped or lobed, and parietal; at maturity, chloroplasts multiple but large and few in numbers, parietal.

The type family Sphaeropleaceae differs from many other sphaeroplealeans in ITS2 secondary structure (Keller et al. 2008), although most lineages discussed in the present study have not been tested in that way. It is possible that Sphaeropleaceae are sister to the remaining (“crown”) Sphaeropleales as suggested by previous studies Z VAD FMK (e.g., Wolf et al. 2002, Tippery et al. 2012). The order Sphaeropleales is characterized by a putatively strong ultrastructural synapomorphy, the directly opposed (DO) basal flagellar bodies in motile cells, and even though swimming

cells of the Sphaeropleaceae differ ultrastructurally from the remainder of the order, they retain the basic DO organization. The Sphaeropleaceae contain the filamentous Sphaeroplea, and the solitary Ankyra and Atractomorpha. These algae are coenocytic, contain pyrenoids with traversing cytoplasm, and reproduce via zoospores or sexually via anisogamy or oogamy. Motile cells have been described in detail by Hoffman (1984) and Cáceres et al. (1997). In addition, Tsarenko (2005) lists four families

as members of the Sphaeropleales that were not included in our study: Characiaceae, Chlorosarcinaceae, Gloeotilaceae, and Microsporaceae. Characiaceae, as discussed above, is a problematic taxon because the higher taxonomic affiliation of the lectotype species (Characium sieboldii A. Braun) remains unclear. Nevertheless, the classification proposed in this study H 89 is not affected by this uncertainty. The family Chlorosarcinaceae was not considered

in this study because it had been demonstrated by Deason and Floyd (1987) that Chlorosarcina Atezolizumab chemical structure has a counter-clockwise arrangement of flagellar basal bodies, which rules it out as a member of Chlorophyceae. Similarly, even though the type of the genus has not been verified phylogenetically, Gloeotila was shown to group with trebouxiophytes in Verghese (2007). Likewise, no type material of Microspora is available for phylogenetic examination, and therefore the family was not considered in the present study. Interestingly, unpublished data by Buchheim and Buchheim (http://www.bio.utulsa.edu/deepestgreen/Geminella.htm) weakly suggest that one Microspora-like strain (UTEX LB472) may be a relative of Sphaeropleales. However, Durako (2007) showed the same strain as a relative of Chaetophorales. The phylogenetic position of Microsporaceae will require further investigation, and likely additional field collections to designate a type specimen/culture for the generitype of Microspora, M. abbreviata (Rabenhorst) Lagerheim. Rotundella rotunda gen. et sp. nov. Fučíková, P. O. Lewis & L. A. Lewis (Fig. 1, a–f) Cells spherical to ovoid or irregular (5–) 8–20 μm in diameter. In young cells, chloroplast single, cup-shaped or lobed, and parietal; at maturity, chloroplasts multiple but large and few in numbers, parietal.

3. The pre-hurricane results revealed one community with association patterns PD-332991 that were consistent with previous work on this population as well as other well-documented populations. Post-hurricane associations revealed that the community split into two distinct units, whose members associated highly within, but rarely between units. Association patterns varied between units. Immigrants assimilated well into the population, especially males. Over half of the post-hurricane associations involved immigrants, the majority between

residents and immigrants, and primarily involving immigrant males. The costs/benefits of choosing to associate with an immigrant individual differ between males and females and may have been the driving force for the changes in social structure that occurred. “
“Although most eastern North Pacific (ENP) gray whales feed in the Bering, Beaufort, and Chukchi Seas during summer and fall, a small number of individuals, referred to AZD5363 as the Pacific Coast Feeding Group (PCFG), show intra- and interseasonal fidelity to feeding areas from northern California through southeastern Alaska. We used both mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and 12 microsatellite markers to assess whether stock structure exists among

feeding grounds used by ENP gray whales. Significant mtDNA differentiation was found when samples representing the PCFG (n = 71) were compared with samples (n = 103) collected from animals feeding further north (FST = 0.012, P = 0.0045). No significant nuclear differences were detected. These results indicate that matrilineal fidelity plays a role in creating structure among feeding grounds but suggests that individuals from different feeding areas may interbreed. Haplotype diversities were similar between strata (hPCFG = 0.945, hNorthern = 0.952), which, in combination with the low level of mtDNA differentiation identified, suggested that some immigration into the PCFG could be

occurring. These results are important in evaluating the management of ENP gray whales, especially in light of the Makah Tribe’s proposal to resume whaling in an area of the Washington coast utilized by both PCFG and migrating whales. “
“Electronic tags have proven to be valuable tools in Ribonuclease T1 assessing small cetacean movement and behavior. However, problems associated with tag size and attachment have limited duration and damaged dorsal fins. These outcomes have motivated researchers to develop a new satellite-linked tag design that reduces detrimental effects to tagged animals, while increasing transmission durations. The goals of this study were to review previous studies that deployed single-pin transmitters and determine factors that influence transmission duration. Then, test these factors utilizing computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models to identify an optimal single-pin satellite-linked tag design, and evaluate this prototype through field studies.

g. osprey Pandion haliaetus; Weimerskirch et al., 1993, 2002; Alerstam, Hake & Kjelle, 2006; Thorup et al., 2006a,b; wandering albatross Diomedea exulans; Jouventin & Weimerskirch, 1990). The newest platform transmitter terminal (PTT) devices incorporate global positioning system (GPS) technology and can report altitude, speed, and heading in addition selleck to position (latitude and longitude). By updating the data at hourly intervals, the investigator can coarsely sample a bird’s behavior and locations. For example, Mandel et al. (2008) examined turkey vulture Cathartes aura

migratory decisions but were unable to obtain a finer resolution than 1 h in their analysis. From their data they inferred that vultures depend on and use atmospheric turbulence to minimize metabolic costs but could not determine how closely the birds tracked the turbulent layer. Because of their size these transmitters selleck inhibitor are not suitable for small birds. On an even coarser scale, movements of small birds can be tracked using geolocators to estimate latitude

(Stutchbury et al., 2009). Digital avian radars, on the other hand, can detect and continuously track birds with a temporal granularity of about 2.5 s (depending on the antenna rotation speed). However, the technology also has its limitations; radar cannot be used to identify species of birds let alone distinguish individuals from one another. The identification of the species

and individuals being observed must be obtained from other sources. The objective of this study was to determine whether a digital avian radar and satellite transmitters could provide complementary information on freely moving, individual GPS-PTT-equipped black vultures Coragyps atratus and turkey vultures. Additional objectives include identifying the conditions and variables that resulted in coincident radar and PTT records. This combination of techniques to verify these two remote sensing techniques with one another has never been accomplished before. The turkey and black vultures were captured using a baited walk-in trap (Humphrey, Avery & Mcgrane, 2000) at the Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS), Beaufort, SC, USA. The radar was installed centrally Glutathione peroxidase on the MCAS Beaufort, SC airfield (32.4735°N, 80.7194°W). The runways and taxiways are surrounded by mown grass to the edge of the aircraft movement area (hangars, parking ramps, safety areas). The surrounding habitat is conifer and mixed conifer-hardwood forest, predominately longleaf Pinus palustris and slash pine Pinus elliottii, and tidal marsh. As part of a long-term study PTT satellite units (PTT-100, Microwave Telemetry Inc., Columbia, MD, USA) were attached using a Teflon tape backpack harness (Humphrey et al., 2000) to 8 turkey and 8 black vultures captured between 9 October 2006 and 10 April 2007.

The larger necrotic lesions were characterized by massive

death of hepatocytes in the liver. The scoring was confirmed by an independent Selleckchem Ceritinib “blinded” observer. Detailed Materials and Methods can be found in the Supporting Information. IL12 is one of the primary inflammatory cytokines and it is known that administration of recombinant IL12 protein induces liver toxicity.6 Electroporation-mediated delivery of IL12-encoding DNA (pIL12) rather than delivery of the recombinant protein has several advantages, such as inducing systemic production of the cytokine over time, thereby better mimicking the proinflammatory environment during liver pathogenesis. To establish an in vivo model to study cytokine-mediated liver toxicity by way of gene therapy, pIL12 was administered into muscles followed by electroporation.27

Robust expression of IL12 and IFN-γ protein were detected in the blood (Fig. 1A,B), suggesting that IL12 is biologically functional. Because both IL12 and IFN-γ enhance liver toxicity, we determined whether systemic introduction of Selleckchem IWR-1 IL12 DNA by way of electroporation induced liver toxicity. Liver histology confirmed that delivery of pIL12 but not control DNA induced typical lesions of IL12-induced hepatotoxicity (Fig. 1C). These lesions were mainly seen in the liver but not in other major organs (Supporting Fig. 1). Because infection- or proinflammatory cytokine-induced liver toxicity is resolved over time after initial injury, we hypothesized that the recovery is due to induction of naturally occurring key inhibitors against proinflammatory cytokines. Indeed, others have shown previously that an antiinflammatory cytokine such as IL10 is required during liver regeneration.28 Using microarrays, we identified that IL12 induces IL30, the p28 subunit of IL27, but does not induce the expression of EBI3,

the other subunit of IL27 (unpubl. data). Indeed, IL12 gene therapy induced IL30 Oxaprozin at a maximum level of 200 pg/mL on day 8 (Fig. 2A). To determine the primary cell source from which IL30 was induced by IL12, B cells, macrophages, dendritic cells (DCs), monocytes, and T cells were tested because the former three types of cells are known sources for IL27 production, whereas the T cells were used as a negative control.29 Irrespective of the cell types, no pronounced induction of IL30 by IL12 treatment was found in any of the cells (Supporting Fig. 2A), suggesting an intermediate molecule. Because IFN-γ is the primary IL12-induced cytokine, and a recent study showed IFN-γ induces IL30 expression in macrophages in vitro,5, 30 we tested whether IFN-γ acts as an IL12-effector cytokine for inducing IL30 expression.

As shown in Supporting Fig. 2A, the percentage of GFPlow cells (minimal collagen promoter activity) in UV+ (vitamin

A containing) HSCs is reduced from 9.5% to 2.1%, whereas the percentage of GFPhigh/UV+ HSCs increases in BDL mice as compared to sham-operated animals, indicating activation of HSCs in the model. Further, qPCR analysis of all UV+ HSCs from BDL versus sham mice reveals induction of HSC activation markers such as α1(I)procollagen (Col1a1), Sma, and Timp1 in BDL HSCs but not Desmin (Supporting Fig. 2B). Having confirmed that http://www.selleckchem.com/products/MDV3100.html HSCs are indeed activated in the model, we tested the effects of daily intraperitoneal administration of RA versus vehicle during the second week of BDL. The liver to body weight percentage was not different between RA or vehicle-treated mice (6.8 ± 0.7 versus 6.3 ± 0.3), nor were the plasma alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels (157 ± 71 versus 283 ± 95, P = 0.29). However, the digital morphometric analysis of Sirius red-stained collagen fibers shows a significant attenuation of liver fibrosis by RA treatment (Fig. 5I). To examine whether this antifibrotic effect of RA is associated with suppressed activation of HSCs in vivo, immunohistochemistry for SMA and desmin were performed (Supporting

Fig. 2C). In the sham-operated liver, expression of SMA is primarily seen in the hepatic artery and a very few cells around the bile duct, but not in HSCs in the sinusoid (Supporting Fig. Bay 11-7085 2C, upper and lower left panel). In the vehicle-treated selleck chemicals llc BDL liver, expression of SMA increases in desmin+ portal MFs and HSCs (Supporting Fig. 2C, upper and lower middle panel). RA treatment reduces the percentage of SMA+ MFs by 40% and that of SMA+ HSCs by 75% (Supporting Fig. 2C,D). The density of desmin+ HSCs increases

by BDL, but RA treatment has no effect on this change (Supporting Fig. 2D). No TUNEL+ HSCs or hepatocytes are detected in the liver parenchyma of either RA- or vehicle-treated BDL livers. These data indicate that RA suppresses activation of both portal MFs and HSCs in BDL-induced liver injury. Hepatic mRNA levels of α1(I)procollagen and SMA are also significantly reduced by RA treatment (Fig. 5J), further supporting antifibrotic effects of RA in this model. Taken together, these data indicate that RA suppresses activation of HSCs and liver fibrosis in BDL-induced liver injury. The present study demonstrates that the MeCP2-EZH2 relay of Pparγ epigenetic repression is an important target for the antifibrotic effect of the herbal prescription YGW. Polyphenolic RA and flavonoid BC are identified as active phytochemicals in YGW that reverse epigenetic Pparγ repression and activated phenotype of HSCs.

But until now its mechanism of action leading to an improvement of liver regeneration could not have been clarified. In this investigation the impact of immune- and stem-cell mobilisation into the blood on patients outcome was evaluated. Methods: Filgrastim was administered as an individualised

treatment with 12 subcutaneous doses (5 ng/kg day 1-5 daily, day 6-26 every third day) between 03/2013 and 01/2014 to eight patients with acute (on chronic) liver failure refractory to standard therapy (alcoholic hepatitis n=6, flupirtin induced liver failure n=2). Patients Histone Methyltransferase inhibitor were clarified about the off-label use and gave informed consent prior drug administration. Results: Two patients died and one patient was successfully transplanted

(non survivors) within two weeks due to severe liver failure (28-day transplant-free mortality 37,5 %). Five patients survived 28 days or longer (survivors). Gender, age as well as renal and liver function test did not differ between groups prior treatment initiation. In all patients mobilisation of macrophages, neutrophils and CD39+Immune-cells by G-CSF could be demonstrated. In contrast to survivors, non-survivors showed an up-regulation of regulatory T cells (CD4+CD25+CD39+) already at baseline that could not further be stimulated in the line of G-CSF administration. These patients did not respond to G-CSF regarding stem cell mobilisation [CD133+ (CD39+)]. Several diagnostic markers like y glutamyl transferase, creatinine or bilirubin correlated significantly Selleck Trichostatin A with blood levels of different cell-subsets. Conclusions: With these preliminary observations we could show that survivors and non-survivors had at least in parts different pattern of immune and stem cells in peripheral blood during G-CSF stimulation. Tregs might be an immunecell subset indicating a worse prognosis of patients with severe liver failure. Therefore monitoring stem and immune cell levels might

help to indicate subgroups of patients who really benefit Interleukin-3 receptor from G-CSF administration. A multi center randomized trial comparing G-CSF and standard of care is in preparation. Disclosures: Thomas Berg – Advisory Committees or Review Panels: Gilead, BMS, Roche, Tibotec, Vertex, Jannsen, Novartis, Abbott, Merck; Consulting: Gilead, BMS, Roche, Tibotec; Vertex, Janssen; Grant/Research Support: Gilead, BMS, Roche, Tibotec; Vertex, Jannssen, Merck/MSD, Boehringer Ingelheim, Novartis; Speaking and Teaching: Gilead, BMS, Roche, Tibotec; Vertex, Janssen, Merck/MSD, Novartis, Merck, Bayer Moritz Schmelzle – Grant/Research Support: Novartis The following people have nothing to disclose: Cornelius Engelmann, Katrin Splith Background: C/EBP Homologous Protein (CHOP) has been shown to play a key role in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-mediated apoptosis.

But until now its mechanism of action leading to an improvement of liver regeneration could not have been clarified. In this investigation the impact of immune- and stem-cell mobilisation into the blood on patients outcome was evaluated. Methods: Filgrastim was administered as an individualised

treatment with 12 subcutaneous doses (5 ng/kg day 1-5 daily, day 6-26 every third day) between 03/2013 and 01/2014 to eight patients with acute (on chronic) liver failure refractory to standard therapy (alcoholic hepatitis n=6, flupirtin induced liver failure n=2). Patients selleck chemicals llc were clarified about the off-label use and gave informed consent prior drug administration. Results: Two patients died and one patient was successfully transplanted

(non survivors) within two weeks due to severe liver failure (28-day transplant-free mortality 37,5 %). Five patients survived 28 days or longer (survivors). Gender, age as well as renal and liver function test did not differ between groups prior treatment initiation. In all patients mobilisation of macrophages, neutrophils and CD39+Immune-cells by G-CSF could be demonstrated. In contrast to survivors, non-survivors showed an up-regulation of regulatory T cells (CD4+CD25+CD39+) already at baseline that could not further be stimulated in the line of G-CSF administration. These patients did not respond to G-CSF regarding stem cell mobilisation [CD133+ (CD39+)]. Several diagnostic markers like y glutamyl transferase, creatinine or bilirubin correlated significantly AZD6738 manufacturer with blood levels of different cell-subsets. Conclusions: With these preliminary observations we could show that survivors and non-survivors had at least in parts different pattern of immune and stem cells in peripheral blood during G-CSF stimulation. Tregs might be an immunecell subset indicating a worse prognosis of patients with severe liver failure. Therefore monitoring stem and immune cell levels might

help to indicate subgroups of patients who really benefit Ketotifen from G-CSF administration. A multi center randomized trial comparing G-CSF and standard of care is in preparation. Disclosures: Thomas Berg – Advisory Committees or Review Panels: Gilead, BMS, Roche, Tibotec, Vertex, Jannsen, Novartis, Abbott, Merck; Consulting: Gilead, BMS, Roche, Tibotec; Vertex, Janssen; Grant/Research Support: Gilead, BMS, Roche, Tibotec; Vertex, Jannssen, Merck/MSD, Boehringer Ingelheim, Novartis; Speaking and Teaching: Gilead, BMS, Roche, Tibotec; Vertex, Janssen, Merck/MSD, Novartis, Merck, Bayer Moritz Schmelzle – Grant/Research Support: Novartis The following people have nothing to disclose: Cornelius Engelmann, Katrin Splith Background: C/EBP Homologous Protein (CHOP) has been shown to play a key role in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-mediated apoptosis.

Further studies are required to evaluate whether this learn more promising

technique may be considered a reliable and accurate method to longitudinally evaluate patients with increased ICP secondary to IIH. “
“Although metastatic skull lesions of neuroblastoma are not uncommon, brain involvement is infrequent and prompt diagnosis is of utmost importance in such cases. Previous studies have shown that Meta-Iodo-Benzyl-Guanidine (MIBG) scans were not always reliable in detecting central nervous system metastases, however most published reports referred to the Iodine-131 (131I)-MIBG scans. Herein, we report an intraventricular metastasis of neuroblastoma diagnosed using an Iodine-123 (123I)-MIBG scan, which is increasingly being used in clinical practice and reported as a more accurate method for detecting metastatic ABT-888 molecular weight lesions. An unusual case of metastatic neuroblastoma to the left lateral ventricle of the brain is presented. Planar 123I-MIBG scintigraphy showed faint tracer activity close to the midline without asymmetric extensions or abnormal activity in the skull bones. A subsequent brain MR scan revealed an enhancing mass within the left frontal horn consistent with a metastatic lesion. The patient underwent tumor resection with pathology showing neuroblastoma. Our case shows that 123I-MIBG scintigraphy can be useful in detecting intraventricular

brain metastases of neuroblastoma. Although the 123I-MIBG scintigraphy has been reported to have a significantly superior sensitivity in monitoring asymptomatic patients with neuroblastoma the compared with 131I-MIBG scans, bone marrow histology, bone scan, CT, and urinary catecholamine

levels, further studies may be necessary to evaluate its sensitivity in detecting brain lesions. “
“To investigate the potential of the ultrasound-based evaluation of the optic nerve sheath in a patient with spontaneous intracranial hypotension due to cervical cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leakage. Repeated measurements of the optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) using B-mode sonography were performed before treatment initiation, during medical treatment, and during a course of repeated placement of epidural blood patches. On admission, transorbital sonography revealed a decreased ONSD of 4.1 mm on the right and 4.3 mm on the left side. After 8 months of treatment with caffeine and computed tomography-guided epidural blood patches a gradual distension of the ONSD into the normal range was bilaterally observed (right: 5.2 mm; left: 5.3 mm). The ultrasound-based evaluation of the optic nerve sheath may be helpful in detecting CSF hypovolemia and for determination of treatment effects. This report should be seen as a basis for future investigations on the sonographic assessment of the optic nerve sheath in diagnosis and treatment of intracranial hypotension. “
“There have been some reports on right-to-left shunt as a cause of cryptogenic stroke.